Beehives act as ‘living immune systems’ with layered antimicrobial defenses

Researchers have discovered honey beehives act as “living immune systems” that help protect the bee colony, its offspring and food supplies from disease. The finding underlines the need to protect bee habitat to ensure their health.

Hive materials work together against disease

In an example of insect engineering, each part of the hive—from the beeswax, honey and pollen to the propolis, a sticky material bees collect from plants—is “built in” strategically across different compartments of the hive.

The location of these hive materials, combined with their unique antimicrobial and chemical properties, works to repel disease and to encourage helpful fungi and bacteria.

This is similar to how the human immune system helps manage both helpful and harmful microbes in our body, such as in our gut.

However, there’s a catch. Researchers found the hive’s natural defenses depended heavily on the surrounding environment and acted like a mirror to the ecosystem. Honey bees can only build strong hive defense systems from the quality of resources available to create the building materials.

Beehives that were located closer to native bushland or agricultural land showed measurably different chemical defenses, revealing the unseen impact of ecosystems on a hive’s capacity to fend off disease.

“Hives are not only homes for bees, but also act as their workplaces, restaurants and hospitals, and now we can add immune systems to the list,” says lead researcher Dr. Kenya Fernandes.

“We already know honey, beeswax and propolis have antimicrobial properties independently. But what came as a surprise was how these materials were placed in the hive wasn’t random, but organized. The hive’s antimicrobial properties worked together to protect the eggs and larvae, as well as the fermented pollen the bees consume.”

Layered defenses protect the hive’s center

For the study published in ISME Communications, the researchers collected honey, pollen, beeswax and propolis samples from 24 honey bee colonies across five apiaries at Tocal College, New South Wales, and analyzed their antimicrobial and chemical properties. The team also sampled bees to examine the microbial communities living inside their guts and the antimicrobial properties of their secretions and body tissues.

A beehive is made of beeswax combs that act as storage units. The hive’s natural immune system was organized in layers to protect the eggs and larvae at the center of the hive.

Hive areas exposed to the outside environment had the strongest natural defenses. Honey from these hives was found to have the most potent antimicrobial abilities, alongside propolis, which is used by bees to seal gaps and cracks. The honey and propolis analyzed were consistently found to be rich in bioactive compounds, including hydrogen peroxide in honey and plant-derived compounds called flavonoids in propolis.

“As we travel closer to the hive center, the antimicrobial defenses become more targeted, with wax comb, stored pollen and the bees’ own bodies helping to filter out harmful bacteria and fungi, while encouraging helpful species,” Fernandes, a 2026 NSW Tall Young Poppy awardee, said.

The researchers also found many bacteria and fungi present in hive materials likely came from floral nectar, showing the influence of the surrounding environment where bees forage.

Hive defenses were found to be more strongly tuned to protect against bacteria than fungi. This is most likely a cost-benefit trade-off, where the hive invests more heavily against the most severe threat posed by bacterial diseases. One example is American foulbrood, a common, fatal and highly contagious bacterial disease affecting honey bee larvae that can wipe out a hive.

Habitat loss could weaken hive defenses

“This shows healthy hives depend on and are influenced by healthy ecosystems. Land clearing and intensive farming could be quietly eroding the bees’ natural defenses. This builds a strong case for protecting diverse flowering habitats that support healthy hives,” says co-author Elizabeth Frost, technical specialist bees at the NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development (DPIRD).

“There are direct threats to bee populations such as the varroa mite, but many don’t realize the indirect threats: the shrinking of healthy ecosystems has a domino effect. Landscapes with diverse plant species can increase the bees’ chances of being resilient to disease.”

The study focused on the European honey bee, but Fernandes is interested in investigating whether a similar system exists for Australian native stingless bee species, which are social with big colonies.

“I’d love to see if other social insects such as native stingless bees, ants and termites, which also build incredibly complex homes, also have the same system,” Fernandes said.

Who’s behind this story?

Gaby Clark

MA in English, copy editor since 2021 with experience in higher education and health content. Dedicated to trustworthy science news.

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Robert Egan

Bachelor’s in mathematical biology, Master’s in creative writing. Well-traveled with unique perspectives on science and language.

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